Biosensor systems provide an analysis of a biological fluid, such as whole blood, serum, plasma, urine, saliva, interstitial, or intracellular fluid. Typically, the systems include a measurement device that analyzes a sample contacting a test sensor. The sample usually is in liquid form and in addition to being a biological fluid, may be the derivative of a biological fluid, such as an extract, a dilution, a filtrate, or a reconstituted precipitate. The analysis performed by the biosensor system determines the presence and/or concentration of one or more analytes, such as alcohol, glucose, uric acid, lactate, cholesterol, bilirubin, free fatty acids, triglycerides, proteins, ketones, phenylalanine or enzymes, in the biological fluid. The analysis may be useful in the diagnosis and treatment of physiological abnormalities. For example, a diabetic individual may use a biosensor system to determine the glucose level in whole blood for adjustments to diet and/or medication.
Biosensor systems may be designed to analyze one or more analytes and may use different volumes of biological fluids. Some systems may analyze a single drop of whole blood, such as from 0.25-15 microliters (μL) in volume. Biosensor systems may be implemented using bench-top, portable, and like measurement devices. Portable measurement devices may be hand-held and allow for the identification and/or quantification of one or more analytes in a sample. Examples of portable measurement systems include the Ascensia® Breeze® and Elite® meters of Bayer HealthCare in Tarrytown, N.Y., while examples of bench-top measurement systems include the Electrochemical Workstation available from CH Instruments in Austin, Tex.
Biosensor systems may use optical and/or electrochemical methods to analyze the biological fluid. In some optical systems, the analyte concentration is determined by measuring light that has interacted with or been absorbed by a light-identifiable species, such as the analyte or a reaction or product formed from a chemical indicator reacting with the analyte. In other optical systems, a chemical indicator fluoresces or emits light in response to the analyte when illuminated by an excitation beam. The light may be converted into an electrical output signal, such as current or potential, which may be similarly processed to the output signal from an electrochemical method. In either optical system, the system measures and correlates the light with the analyte concentration of the sample.
In light-absorption optical systems, the chemical indicator produces a reaction product that absorbs light. A chemical indicator such as tetrazolium along with an enzyme such as diaphorase may be used. Tetrazolium usually forms formazan (a chromagen) in response to the redox reaction of the analyte. An incident input beam from a light source is directed toward the sample. The light source may be a laser, a light emitting diode, or the like. The incident beam may have a wavelength selected for absorption by the reaction product. As the incident beam passes through the sample, the reaction product absorbs a portion of the incident beam, thus attenuating or reducing the intensity of the incident beam. The incident beam may be reflected back from or transmitted through the sample to a detector. The detector collects and measures the attenuated incident beam (output signal). The amount of light attenuated by the reaction product is an indication of the analyte concentration in the sample.
In light-generated optical systems, the chemical detector fluoresces or emits light in response to the analyte redox reaction. A detector collects and measures the generated light (output signal). The amount of light produced by the chemical indicator is an indication of the analyte concentration in the sample.
In electrochemical biosensor systems, the analyte concentration is determined from an electrical signal generated by an oxidation/reduction or redox reaction of the analyte or a species responsive to the analyte when an input signal is applied to the sample. The input signal may be a potential or current and may be constant, variable, or a combination thereof such as when an AC signal is applied with a DC signal offset. The input signal may be applied as a single pulse or in multiple pulses, sequences, or cycles. An enzyme or similar species may be added to the sample to enhance the electron transfer from a first species to a second species during the redox reaction. The enzyme or similar species may react with a single analyte, thus providing specificity to a portion of the generated output signal. A mediator may be used to maintain the oxidation state of the enzyme.
Electrochemical biosensor systems usually include a measurement device having electrical contacts that connect with electrical conductors in the test sensor. The conductors may be made from conductive materials, such as solid metals, metal pastes, conductive carbon, conductive carbon pastes, conductive polymers, and the like. The electrical conductors typically connect to working, counter, reference, and/or other electrodes that extend into a sample reservoir. One or more electrical conductors also may extend into the sample reservoir to provide functionality not provided by the electrodes.
The measurement device applies an input signal through the electrical contacts to the electrical conductors of the test sensor. The electrical conductors convey the input signal through the electrodes into the sample present in the sample reservoir. The redox reaction of the analyte generates an electrical output signal in response to the input signal. The electrical output signal from the strip may be a current (as generated by amperometry or voltammetry), a potential (as generated by potentiometry/galvanometry), or an accumulated charge (as generated by coulometry). The measurement device may have the processing capability to measure and correlate the output signal with the presence and/or concentration of one or more analytes in the biological fluid.
In coulometry, a potential is applied to the sample to exhaustively oxidize or reduce the analyte. A biosensor system using coulometry is described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,120,676. In amperometry, an electrical signal of constant potential (voltage) is applied to the electrical conductors of the test sensor while the measured output signal is a current. Biosensor systems using amperometry are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,620,579; 5,653,863; 6,153,069; and 6,413,411. In voltammetry, a varying potential is applied to a sample of biological fluid. In gated amperometry and gated voltammetry, pulsed inputs may be used as described in WO 2007/013915 and WO 2007/040913, respectively.
In many biosensor systems, the test sensor may be adapted for use outside, inside, or partially inside a living organism. When used outside a living organism, a sample of the biological fluid may be introduced into a sample reservoir in the test sensor. The test sensor may be placed in the measurement device before, after, or during the introduction of the sample for analysis. When inside or partially inside a living organism, the test sensor may be continually immersed in the sample or the sample may be intermittently introduced to the strip. The test sensor may include a reservoir that partially isolates a volume of the sample or be open to the sample. When open, the strip may take the form of a fiber or other structure placed in contact with the biological fluid. Similarly, the sample may continuously flow through the strip, such as for continuous monitoring, or be interrupted, such as for intermittent monitoring, for analysis.
Biosensor systems may provide an output signal during the analysis of the biological fluid that includes one or multiple errors. These errors may be reflected in an abnormal output signal, such as when one or more portions or the entire output signal is non-responsive or improperly responsive to the analyte concentration of the sample. These errors may be from one or more contributors, such as the physical characteristics of the sample, the environmental aspects of the sample, the operating conditions of the system, interfering substances, and the like. Physical characteristics of the sample include hematocrit (red blood cell) concentration and the like. Environmental aspects of the sample include temperature and the like.
The measurement performance of a biosensor system is defined in terms of accuracy and/or precision. Increases in accuracy and/or precision provide for an improvement in measurement performance, a reduction in the bias, of the system. Accuracy may be expressed in terms of bias of the sensor system's analyte reading in comparison to a reference analyte reading, with larger bias values representing less accuracy. Precision may be expressed in terms of the spread or variance of the bias among multiple analyte readings in relation to a mean. Bias is the difference between one or more values determined from the biosensor system and one or more accepted reference values for the analyte concentration in the biological fluid. Thus, one or more errors in the analysis results in the bias of the determined analyte concentration of a biosensor system.
Bias may be expressed in terms of “absolute bias” or “percent bias”. Absolute bias may be expressed in the units of the measurement, such as mg/dL, while percent bias may be expressed as a percentage of the absolute bias value over the reference value. Under the ISO standard, absolute bias is used to express error in glucose concentrations less than 75 mg/dL, while percent bias is used to express error in glucose concentrations of 75 mg/dL and higher. The term “combined bias” (expressed as bias/%-bias) represents absolute bias for glucose concentrations less than 75 mg/dL and percent bias for glucose concentrations of 75 mg/dL and higher. Accepted reference values for analyte concentrations may be obtained with a reference instrument, such as the YSI 2300 STAT PLUS™ available from YSI Inc., Yellow Springs, Ohio.
Hematocrit bias refers to the difference between the reference glucose concentration obtained with a reference instrument and an experimental glucose reading obtained from a biosensor system for samples containing differing hematocrit levels. The difference between the reference and values obtained from the system results from the varying hematocrit level between specific whole blood samples and may be generally expressed as a percentage by the following equation: % Hct-Bias=100%×(Gm−Gref)/Gref, where Gm and Gref are the determined glucose and reference glucose concentration readings, respectively, for any hematocrit level. The larger the absolute value of the % Hct-bias, the more the hematocrit level of the sample (expressed as % Hct: the percentage of red blood cell volume/sample volume) is reducing the accuracy and/or precision of the determined glucose concentration. For example, if whole blood samples containing identical glucose concentrations, but having hematocrit levels of 20, 40, and 60%, are analyzed, three different glucose readings will be reported by a system based on one set of calibration constants (slope and intercept of the 40% hematocrit containing whole blood sample, for instance). “Hematocrit sensitivity” is an expression of the degree to which changes in the hematocrit level of a sample affect the bias values for an analysis. Hematocrit sensitivity may be defined as the numerical values of the combined biases per percent hematocrit, thus bias/%-bias per % Hct.
Temperature bias refers to the difference between an analyte concentration obtained at a reference temperature and an analyte concentration obtained at a different experimental temperature for the same sample. The difference between the analyte concentration obtained at the reference temperature and that obtained from the different experimental temperature may be generally expressed as a percentage by the following equation: % Temp-Bias=100%×(AmTemp−ARefTemp)/ARefTemp, where AmTemp and ARefTemp are the analyte concentrations at the experimental and reference temperatures, respectively, for the sample. The larger the absolute value of the % Temp-bias, the more the temperature difference is reducing the accuracy and/or precision of the glucose concentration determined at the different experimental temperature. “Temperature sensitivity” is an expression of the degree to which changes in the temperature at which the analysis is performed affect the bias values for an analysis. Temperature sensitivity may be defined as the numerical values of the combined biases per degree of temperature, thus %-bias/° C. Temperature sensitivity also may be defined as slope deviation per degree of temperature, thus ΔS/° C.
Many biosensor systems include one or more methods to correct errors associated with an analysis. The concentration values obtained from an analysis with an error may be inaccurate. Thus, the ability to correct these analyses may increase the accuracy and/or precision of the concentration values obtained. An error correction system may compensate for one or more errors, such as a sample temperature or a sample hematocrit level, which are different from a reference temperature or a reference hematocrit value.
Some biosensor systems have an error correction system that compensates for different hematocrit concentrations in the sample. Various methods and techniques have been proposed to reduce the bias of the hematocrit effect on glucose measurements. Some methods use the ratio of currents from a forward and a reverse potential pulse to compensate for the hematocrit effect. Other methods have been proposed to reduce the bias of the hematocrit effect, including using silica particles to filter red blood cells from the electrode surface or using wide electrode spacing in combination with mesh layers to distribute blood throughout the test sensor.
Some biosensor systems have an error correction system that compensates for temperature. Such error correction systems typically alter a determined analyte concentration for a particular reference temperature in response to an instrument or sample temperature. A number of biosensor systems compensate for temperature error by correcting the output signal prior to calculating the analyte concentration from a correlation equation. Other biosensor systems compensate for temperature error by correcting the analyte concentration calculated from the correlation equation. Generally, conventional methods of temperature compensation look at the effect of temperature on a specific parameter, not the overall effect the temperature error has on the bias of the analysis. Biosensor systems having error detection and/or compensation systems for the sample temperature are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,431,004; 4,750,496; 5,366,609; 5,395,504; 5,508,171; 6,391,645; and 6,576,117.
Some biosensor systems have an error correction system that compensates for interferents and other contributors. Such error correction systems typically use an electrode lacking one or more of the working electrode reagents to allow for the subtraction of a background interferent signal from the working electrode signal.
While conventional error compensation systems balance various advantages and disadvantages, none are ideal. Conventional systems usually are directed to detect and respond to a particular type of error, either temperature or hematocrit, for example. Such systems typically do not have the ability to compensate for multiple error sources. These systems generally also lack the ability to alter the compensation for the error based on the output signal from a specific sample. Consequently, conventional biosensor systems may provide analysis results having determined analyte concentration values outside a desired performance limit.
Accordingly, there is an ongoing need for improved biosensor systems, especially those that may provide increasingly accurate and/or precise determination of the concentration of the analyte in the sample. The systems, devices, and methods of the present invention overcome at least one of the disadvantages associated with conventional biosensor systems.